March is Women’s History Month, a time to recognize and celebrate the important contributions and achievements that women have made to the United States over the course of American history in a variety of fields. Highlighted below are the contributions from just a small sample of women who were trailblazers in the field of psychology.
Mary Ainsworth, PhD
Dr. Mary Ainsworth earned her PhD in psychology from the University of Toronto in 1939. She held various academic appointments, including tenured professorships at Johns Hopkins University and at the University of Virginia. Dr. Ainsworth is renowned for her research on mother-child attachments and for the development of attachment theory, according to which children have one of three attachment styles: secure, anxious-avoidant, or anxious-resistant. Her studies and theories led to an enormous field of research on early childhood attachment and its effects on later behavior. In recognition of her work, Dr. Ainsworth received numerous awards, including distinguished contribution awards from the American Psychological Association (APA), the Society for Research in Child Development, the Society of Clinical Psychology, and the International Society for the Study of Personal Relationships.
Martha Bernal, PhD
Dr. Martha Bernal was the first Mexican American woman to obtain her PhD in clinical psychology in the United States, which she did in 1962 from the University of Indiana. During her post-doctoral work and as a professor at Arizona State University, she conducted research on ethnic identity and behavioral interventions for children with conduct disorders. Dr. Bernal was one of the founding members and a president of the National Hispanic Psychological Association, advocated for the teaching of multicultural psychology and for the increased graduate training of Hispanic psychology students, and co-authored the book, Ethnic Identity: Formation and Transmission Among Hispanics and Other Ethnic Minorities. In recognition of her work, in 2001, the APA honored her with the Award for Distinguished Contributions to Psychology in the Public Interest.
Mary Whiton Calkins, PhD
Dr. Mary Whiton Calkins attended seminars at Harvard, where she worked with William James and passed all requirements for a PhD with distinction in 1895. However, Harvard refused her the degree because she was a woman, only offering her a doctoral degree from their affiliate Radcliffe College. Through her work at Harvard and as faculty at Wellesley College, Dr. Calkins is known for inventing the paired-associates test to study memory and for pioneering work on the use of introspection in psychology, which was at odds with the then-predominant behaviorist views of John Watson. Furthermore, she was elected as APA’s first woman president in 1905, and she authored many publications, including A First Book in Psychology, which is considered culturally and historically important enough to continue to be reproduced and distributed today in the United States and other countries.
Mamie Phipps Clark, PhD
Dr. Mamie Phipps Clark was the first Black woman to earn a PhD in experimental psychology, which she did in 1943 from Columbia University. Her work on the impact of racial discrimination and stereotypes on children provided important contributions to the field of developmental psychology and the psychology of race. Moreover, Dr. Clark’s research on the identity and self-esteem of Black people expanded the work on identity development to include the important construct of racial consciousness and its development in children. Her legacy additionally includes the establishment of Harlem’s Northside Center for Child Development, which provided therapy to Black children using a holistic approach. Dr. Clark has been praised for achieving success professionally, despite facing both gender and racial obstacles in her career, and she received the Candace Award for Humanitarianism from the National Coalition of 100 Black Women in 1983.
Eleanor Maccoby, PhD
Dr. Eleanor Maccoby earned her PhD from the University of Michigan in 1950 and later became the first woman to chair Stanford University’s Department of Psychology. She was a pioneering American psychologist renowned for her work in developmental psychology and gender studies. Dr. Maccoby’s research challenged conventional beliefs about gender differences, particularly through her influential book, The Psychology of Sex Differences, co-authored with Carol Jacklin. Her studies demonstrated that many perceived gender differences were socially constructed rather than biologically inherent. She also conducted groundbreaking research on parent-child relationships and the effects of divorce on children. Dr. Maccoby’s work earned her numerous honors, including election to the National Academy of Sciences, the Distinguished Scientific Contributions Award from the American Psychological Association, and four other lifetime achievement awards.
Inez Beverly Prosser, PhD
Dr. Inez Beverly Prosser was the first Black woman to earn a doctorate in psychology, from the University of Cincinnati in 1933. Before then, she earned her teaching certificate from Prairie View A&M University and taught at segregated schools in Austin, Texas, for several years. Dr. Prosser’s dissertation explored the self-esteem and social relations of Black children attending segregated or integrated schools, finding that Black students felt more respected by their Black teachers and peers, leading to greater esteem, academic motivation, and relationships. This research highlighted the influence of prejudice on the development of Black children and thoughtfully weighed the potential risks of exposure to such prejudice versus the benefits of access to potentially higher-quality education. In recognition, Dr. Prosser was featured on the cover of NAACP’s magazine, The Crisis. Although she tragically died in a car accident the following year, her advocacy for the education of Black people continues to be acknowledged today.
Margaret Floy Washburn, PhD
Dr. Margaret Floy Washburn was the first woman to earn a PhD in psychology in the United States, in 1894 from Cornell University where she studied under the mentorship of E. B. Titchener. She chaired the psychology departments at Wells College and at the University of Cincinnati before finishing her career at Vassar College. Dr. Washburn’s research explored animal behavior and cognition, and in her seminal book, The Animal Mind, she argued that mental processes are legitimate and appropriate areas for study alongside behavior. She later went on to propose the motor theory of consciousness, which she detailed in her book, Movement and Mental Imagery. Dr. Washburn additionally was the second woman to serve as president of the APA, the second woman to be elected into the National Academy of Sciences, and the first woman to be elected into the Society of Experimental Psychologists.